November’s Tribute to Native Americans
Nations comprised of a Rich Heritage and Culture Pt. 2 compiled and written by Mrs. Dorothy Barron
[1]"That hand is not the color of yours, but if I prick it, the blood will flow, and I shall feel pain," said Standing Bear. "The blood is of the same color as yours. God made me, and I am a man” (Chief Standing Bear).
Photo #1 Red Cloud Photo #2 Tecumseh Photo #3Metacomet
As we continue on today with Part 2 of our November Tribute to Native Americans- Nations comprised of a Rich Heritage and Culture, we want to list some Native or American Indian Leaders and Chiefs- those well-known and perhaps, not as well-known and view them as:
Chiefs, Leaders, Warriors, Protectors, Strategists, Advisors and more!
Images of Native or Indian Americans from television and other sources have often given us fallacious and mendacious views and/or perceptions of Native or Indian American Chiefs and Warriors. Professor Brent Cox, who has offered his knowledge and insight and is considered an expert on Native American culture and Spirituality, as well as a descendent of the Catawba and Cherokee Nations, has advised caution in the use of the word, “Chief” as title. His suggestion that [2]“Leader or holy man or woman is better” (Professor B. Cox) led to a host of questions from me especially after having done further research and discovered [3]‘“the title of "Principal Chief" was created in 1794…”’ by the Cherokee (Wikipedia). Professor Cox kindly responded to my inquiries for additional clarification with the following:
[4]“Leaders were selected by the whole nation and could lose the position by making a simple mistake. Everything was by popular consensus. If a leader urged for war, it was an individual right so if no one showed up, no war. The leader controlled meetings and protocol. The nation or tribe controlled the leader. He had no authority rather he conducted or led ceremonies. Before 1794: leading headman or great warrior or holy man….. Headman is the best. I would eliminate Chief altogether…..” (Professor Brent Cox).
Professor Cox’s advice to “eliminate Chief, altogether” is thought provoking; it leads to great research questions of how the terms, Chief and Chiefdom originated within Native and Indian American cultures and if, before 1794?
To totally eliminate the term "Chief" within Native and Indian American cultures require a mental shift from what most have been taught. Second, Chief is a term for leadership; top ranking or position and associated with one being honorable and noble. Interaction with Professor Cox had me taking a second look at the Title I had placed initially for each of the twelve great men below; for this particular Tribute, I have listed the great Leaders and Chiefs’ Titles as they were listed during my research. Third, whether listed as Leader, Chief, Principal Chief, Warrior, Holy man, etc., these as well as many others provided guidance, leadership and the wherewithal to command a following. In the eyes of many and within this narrative, “they were and are, all Chiefs, because they were great Leaders.”
Native American males, even those destined to become Chiefs were taught at an early age to become warriors. It is important to understand that duties of a warrior entailed more than fighting; the duties of a Chief, much more.
Each Chief was ultimately responsible for his/her entire tribe. Some Leaders or Chiefs had not only to contend with their own tribes or other Native or Indian American Nations and tribes, but the British; the colonists in America; Spain; France, and the United Kingdom. Each at some point had acquired territorial rights in the New Land or America. For Native or Indian American tribes out west, continuous battles with Mexicans (Mexico) as well as encroaching settlers ensued. Negotiations involving foreign policy could be difficult and complicated, but language barriers complicated and compounded matters further for a period of time.
Many Native American Leaders and Chiefs ceded much land to non-Native Americans and attempted to live in peace, but various countries, the colonists and settlers were not appeased and strove for more land and its resources to the point of forcible relocation and/or extermination of Native or Indian Americans. As a result, bloody wars and battles ensued with most of those same Leaders and Chiefs having ridden at the head of the contingent. Waging war was a means of Native Americans protecting their lives, the land and their way of life?
Some Leaders and Chiefs had to contend with challenges of Leadership and Chiefdom usurpation from within their own tribes. Weather conditions and other factors made it necessary to plan, plant, harvest and store or suffer the consequences; they could not gallop off to the nearest market or grocery store.
Strength in the Days Ahead
Some Leaders and Chiefs foresaw the turning point and dark days looming upon the horizon long before encroachment and the eventual destruction of their tribes’ livelihood and way of life.
Photo #4 Early Pioneers
Such occurred in the form and/or as a result of the following:
- Diseases having decimated almost entire tribes; Native or Indian Americans were deliberately introduced to diseases in an effort to exterminate them. Ex.: Having underestimated the strength and resistance of Native American tribes to British rule, [5]British Army General, Jeffery Amherst, instructed at least one subordinate to infect Indian tribes with Smallpox. Indians of the Delaware Tribe were given blankets and a handkerchief infected with the small pox germ (Wikipedia. Siege of Fort Pitt). http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Fort_Pitt
- War among Native American Nations and tribes, as well as internal strife.
- Destruction of major food supplies: predominantly the bison or buffalo- what many have been led to believe was the Buffalo simply ceased to exist. Massive slaughters deliberately took place, which destroyed one of the major food sources of Native Americans in an effort to starve or force them to relocate.
- Greed for land and rich minerals of and/or under the earth caused some men to commit some of the most dastardly and reprehensible acts in history.
- False Promises, broken treaties, forced assimilation and relocation on reservations for most Native or Indian Americans.
Photo #5Plains Indian Crow Chief
Now, our 12 Native American or Indian Leaders and Chiefs:
1. [6]Chief Metacomet (Metacom) or King Phillip 1639-1676 (War Leader and “Sachem- Paramount Chief”) - Native or Indian American Nations and tribes of the North appeared to have been more adaptable to European and colonial society and formal education than those within other geographical areas throughout America. During the 1600s, Native or Indian American Chief Metacomet [7]"...adopted the European name of Phillip and bought his clothes in Boston, Massachusetts" (Wikipedia.Metacomet). http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metacomet. It appears the English gave him the name, "King" Phillip. Metacomet’s advisor was also a Native American who was an Interpreter; could read, write, speak English and was a Harvard Graduate. A number of acts and transgressions on the English's part brought about King Phillip’s War, which has been declared [8]"...the single greatest calamity to occur in seventeenth-century Puritan New England" (Wikipedia. King Phillip's War). http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Philip%27s_War
2. [9]Chief Thayendanegea or Joseph Brant 1743-1807 (Mohawk Military and Political Leader; War Chief) – his family had influential connections with British officials and Indian American Sachems. Introduced to war at an early age and when older he led a band of followers (Volunteers); was made Chief of Mohawks and eventually Chief over Six Nations. He was a great "military and political leader" and was also strategic and an adept foreign policy negotiator. He sided and fought for the British against American colonists. He spoke English and at least 3-6 Six Nations Iroquoian languages. He was given the nickname- "Monster Brant" by some Americans after some of his military massacres against the American colonists. His Tribe was advanced; according to an American commander regarding the town of "Onguaga," of which Brant and other tribe members lived as having consisted of houses built with [10]"…square logs, shingles and stone chimneys, good floors, glass windows" (Wikipedia. Joseph Brant). He went to Paris and London and met with King George, III; years later, he met President George Washington and his cabinet. Later, Brant and part of the Six Nations Iroquois moved to Ontario, Canada, where he remained. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thayendanegea
3. [11]Cherokee Eastern Band Chief Yonaguska 1759-1839 (Principal Chief) - A Reformer, Man of Visions and a Visionaire! As a young boy, Yonaguska had visions, one of which according to him revealed the usurpation of Cherokee lands by settlers. This foresight helped enable him and others to remain upon Cherokee lands. His adoption of a young Caucasian boy into his tribe was fortuitous as well. Leader Yonaguska was determined to remain on Cherokee lands; he refused all offers and treaties to part with or depart from the land. The young man whom the Leader adopted when older championed the tribe's cause and secured land in his name for the Leader and some tribe members, thus having assisted in the prevention of their being forced to relocate. Another vision enabled Leader Yonaguska to become an abstainer of alcohol after having become addicted for a number of years. He formulated a pledge of abstinence of alcohol which was signed by all tribe members. By the time of his death, he had amassed much land. At the point of death, he passed the Chiefdom to his adopted son, William Holland Thomas, who was Caucasian. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yonaguska
4. [12]Shawnee Leader Tecumseh 1768- 1813 (Shawnee Leader and Leader of Tecumseh’s Confederacy) - fought on the side of the British in the 1812 War. He was both historic and a heroic Leader; oratorical and diplomatic. He marshaled Tribes in an effort to unite and worked relentlessly to form a confederacy and Nation to prevent Native or Indian American tribes from selling off land to the US government and the encroachment of settlers who had Native American tribes moved off their lands. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tecumseh
5. [13]Comanche Chief Iron Jacket (Po-bish-e-qu asho) 1780/90 -1858 (Chief and Medicine Man) – who was thought by many to be invincible. Comanche and Kiowa were ruthless in having staved off encroachment and settlement on lands which they occupied; gruesome and merciless battles took place on both sides. The Governor of Texas sent the combined forces of a Texas Ranger(s), Militia and Tonkawa Indians with orders to [14]“…follow any and all trails of hostile and suspected hostile Indians, inflict the most severe punishment, (kill them and their families, destroy their homes and food supplies) and to allow no interference from “any source” (Wikipedia. Antelope Hills Expedition). Chief Iron Jacket’s last battle in life staved off combined forces and thus enabled reinforcements to arrive and people of his and another tribe to escape. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Jacket
6. [15]Chiricahau Apache Chief Cochise 1805-1874 (Chief) - was fierce; he was captured once, but escaped. He fought battles with Mexico and the Spanish to prevent domination, patronization and placation; the Spanish offered inferior weapons and alcohol, but it was the Bascom Affair that set the direction for much of his life. He was falsely arrested, which resulted in bloodshed and continuous battles of which the Apaches were the victors. Mountains served as their strongholds. Chief Cochise was not defeated; he eventually signed a treaty of which his Caucasian friend was a negotiator in his surrender and agent at the reservation on which Chief Cochise lived the remainder of his days. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Cochise
7. [16]Oglala Lakota (Sioux) Chief Red Cloud 1822-1909 – (War Leader and Head Chief) Chief Red Cloud could rally the forces! The Sioux, Cheyenne and Arapaho enjoined in battle and were victorious in a battle that came to be known by some as “Fetterman's Massacre” and others, “Battle of the Hundred Slain.” A peaceful resolution came about after Chief Red Cloud visited with the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Elys Parker (US Army General and Native American of the Iroquois Nation) and U.S. President, Ulysses Grant; such was to be the first of many meetings between Chief Red Cloud and President Grant. As a result, the 1868 Treaty of Laramie (of which Chief Red Cloud did not sign) between the tribes and US Government was signed with the government having agreed the Powder Hills Country inclusive of the Black Hills [17]"…would be closed to all whites" (Wikipedia. Treaty of Fort Laramie 1868). Caucasians cry of "there's gold in them thar hills" caused a stampede of gold prospectors, settlers and others. The government's failure to protect the rights of Native or Indian Americans and having prohibited them their rights to protect themselves, land and resources ignited old hostilities and wars! Consequent trips to Washington and meetings with President Grant resulted in Congress' offer of $25,000.00 for the land and their removal to an Indian Reservation. They declined, but were eventually forced onto a Reservation. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Red_Cloud
8. [18]Chiricahau Apache Leader Geronimo birth name- Goyallé or Goyathala 1829-1909 (Leader of Chiricahau Apache) - A daring Leader that attacked and eluded capture! Born into Bedonchohe tribe and married into the Chiricahau Tribe, Geronimo fought both Mexicans and Americans to prevent encroachment upon their lands. He was a bitter enemy of Mexicans due to their having killed members of his family. He was hunted for a long time. After having surrendered, Geronimo was shuffled to a number of different states as a prisoner of war. He was put on exhibition in fairs, carnivals and expositions. Society views Geronimo as one of the greatest warriors and Leaders of all time. He came to regret having surrendered. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geronimo
9. [19]Hunkpapa Lakota (Sioux) Chief Sitting Bull 1831-1890 (a holy man and Tribal Chief) A man of vision and premonitions! Sitting Bull was instrumental in keeping the Northern Pacific Railway from being built and the US Army and Europeans out of the Hills of South Dakota until gold was discovered. Sitting Bull and some followers headed to and lived in Canada for a period of time. Upon their return and surrender, he was eventually sent to a reservation. Not willing to become dependent upon “whites” (Caucasians), Chief Sitting Bull became an entrepreneur- He was a paid participant in Buffalo Bill Cody’s Wild West Show and further capitalized on what was a profitable business; he charged extra for his photos and autographs. Chief Sitting Bull is best known and remembered for having defeated Lt. Col. George Custer at the Little Bighorn. According to Professor Brent Cox, [20]“Sitting bull was not at the battle of little big horn nor was he a warrior” (Professor Cox). Fear that Chief Sitting Bull would support the Ghost Dance led to his arrest while in his home on the reservation and his senseless death. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Sitting_Bull
10. [21]Ponca Chief Standing Bear 1834-1908 (Chief) – An Appeal before the United States Supreme Court! The US Government's failure to uphold signed treaties which involved ceded land by the Poncas resulted in this Chief and his people's starvation and loss of approximately one-third of the tribe when forced from their home in Nebraska onto a reservation in Oklahoma. Arrested for having left the reservation to bury his son, promulgation of the tribe's condition led to support from others and a suit for Writ of Habeas Corpus (US ex. Rel. Standing Bear v. Crook). US District Judge, E.S. Dundy ruled that "an Indian is a person." Chief Standing Bear won the case and was freed; he toured and spoke on Indian Rights in both America and Europe. This Chief and some tribe members eventually returned to their beloved Niobrara valley in Nebraska. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Standing_Bear
11. [22]Oglala Leader Crazy Horse 1840-1877 (War Leader) - was determined to maintain their customs and culture. He had visions and succumbed to trances. He was in constant battle with Native American Nations, tribes and US soldiers. He participated in Fetterman’s Massacre or Battle of the Hundred Slain, but the following year sustained a great loss as a result of the US military having possessed faster firing rifles. Lack of provisions, he and his tribe surrendered. There are different accounts of how he died, however, death occurred after having surrendered and while in military custody. He has been remembered by followers and the general public down through the years. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Crazy_Horse
12. [23]Comanche Chief Quanah Parker 1845-1852 (Chief) – was the grandson of Leader Iron Jacket and protégé of Leader Wild Horse. Chief Parker, son of a Native American father and European mother founded the Quahadi band, which at one time among the Comanche tribe was not only the “largest, but most notorious”. When no longer able to effectively wage war due to great losses (buffalo, horses, etc.), Chief Quanah Parker led the tribe to an Indian Reservation. He exhibited leadership skills there as well. Ranchers had cattle and needed land; the reservation which housed the Kiowas and Comanches consisted of almost “one (1) million” acres of land. Chief Parker and the Ranchers formed a partnership thus having enabled the Chief to become a rancher and very wealthy man. He was included in President Theodore Roosevelt’s hunting expeditions. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quanah_Parker
Many have been led to assume that most Native American or Indian Leaders or Chiefs either died or surrendered in battle. Such is not the case; a good number were undefeated and could not be captured or held once captured. Many Leaders or Chiefs made arrangements to surrender or went to Indian reservation agencies with or without their tribes and surrendered themselves.
Even though war was inevitable, Native Americans incorporated other means to either and/or avoid war, live peaceably with those of non-Native or Indian American cultures and remain on their lands. Point #5, was a means or strategy of which few are aware.
- Some Native American or Indian Leaders or Chiefs relocated their tribes to Canada.
- Some Leaders or Chiefs moved their tribes high up in/on mountains and crevices and other less accessible places or locations.
- Some Native American Leaders or Chiefs and other learned men took their fight to Washington, DC and/or the United States Supreme Court. In some cases, even when they won legal battles, often those who wanted land rightfully owned and upon which Native Americans resided devised unlawful and illegal schemes of which to divest them.
- Still, some utilized more innovative ways, thus, having retained and remained on their lands. Some Caucasian landowners- friends, who had earlier been adopted into various tribes and/or sympathizers of the brutal and unlawful treatment of Native or Indian Americans, purchased land in their names.
- Some Native or Indian Americans married freedmen. One fascinating story as a result of the marriage of Kofi or Cuffee Slocum and Ruth Moses was the accomplishments of one of their sons. [24]Captain Paul Cuffee or Cuffe’s (1759-1817) mother was Native American and his father, a freed African American. Paul, their son worked hard and with perseverance became a ship Captain and owner/part-owner of a number of ships and at one point, the richest African and Native American. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Cuffe
When educated, sophisticated and/or peaceful means did not work, many Native or Indian Americans armed themselves and with their battle cries went to war or continued warfare. There is no doubt that these Native American or Indian Leaders and Chiefs were men; great men. Some lived and died on their own terms. The Leaders and Chiefs listed above as well as others not mentioned here will continue to serve as inspiration throughout all ages. Join me next week for Part 3, as we continue our November’s Tribute to Native Americans- Nations comprised of a Rich Heritage and Culture compiled and written by Mrs. Dorothy Barron.
Photo #6 Leader Pontiac – Attack on Fort
For making this Tribute to Native Americans possible, the author of this blog, Mrs. Dorothy Barron wishes to thank the following: Wikipedia; Access Genealogy; U. S. History Images and Professor Brent Cox, who is considered an expert on Native American culture and Spirituality He is also a descendent of the Catawba and Cherokee Nations (additional information below). Some additional Resources have been added and listed below as well.
[2] Professor Brent Cox. Considered Expert on Native American culture and Spirituality. Descendant of the Catawba and Cherokee Nations.
[4] Professor Brent Cox. Considered Expert on Native American culture and Spirituality. Descendant of the Catawba and Cherokee Nations.
[20] Professor Brent Cox. Considered Expert on Native American culture and Spirituality. Descendant of the Catawba and Cherokee Nations.
[24] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Cuffe
Photos 1-6. U. S. History Images. Native Americans. Native American Tribes. Native American Cultures. Hatzigeorgiou, Karen J. U.S. History Images. 2011. Online. Internet. <http://ushistoryimages.com>. October- November 2011.
Resources and Resource Information:
- Brent Cox, who serves as West Tennessee Commissioner- Tennessee Historical Commission - Native American representative; Instructor at the University of Tennessee at Martin with expertise in Native American History and Tennessee History. He is Organizer of Native American Day of the annual Civil Rights Conference at UTM. He is considered an expert on Native American culture and Spirituality and as mentioned above, a descendant of the Catawba and Cherokee nations.
- Access Genealogy (one of the most comprehensive sites about Native or Indian Americans) http://www.accessgenealogy.com
- Official Website of the Eastern Band Cherokee Nation- North Carolina
http://www.cherokee-nc.com/index.php
History and Culture Page: http://www.cherokee-nc.com/index.php?page=57
The following Authors and/or their Works were recommended by Professor Cox:
Book- Lies My Teacher Told Me: Everything Your American Textbook Got Wrong by Author, James Loewen
Book: Indian Givers: How the Native Americans Transformed the World by Jack Weatherford. Broadway Books. 2010.
Book: Native Roots: How the Indians Enriched America by Jack Weatherford. Ballantine Books. 1992.
Book- God is Red by Vine Deloria, Jr.
Novel: Fool’s Crow by James Welch. Viking Press. 1986.
Book: HEART OF THE EAGLE: DRAGGING CANOE AND THE EMERGENCE OF THE CHICKAMAUGA CONFEDERACY. Brent Cox. Trailblazers Publishers LLC.1999. References of Professor Brent Cox’s works can be found in Colin Calloway's books and numerous others.
Disclaimer: Author of the Tribute to Native Americans-Nations rich in Heritage and Culture, Mrs. Dorothy Barron, makes no claim to the validity or accuracy of information provided or presented here. She has not endorsed or received endorsements financially or otherwise; this four (4) Part series has been written as a Tribute to Native or Indian Americans.
From me to you,
Mrs. Dorothy Barron, Author
“Slinging Stones… Blog” by Mrs. Dorothy Barron:
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http://mrsdbarron.typepad.com/slingingstones
Parents Taking Charge in Education Blog: http://mrsdbarron.blogspot.com
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